Agres, Carol, Magid Igbaria, and Dana Edberg. (1997). The Virtual Society: Forces and Issues. The Information Society: An International Journal, Vol. 14, No. 2.
Abstract
This paper
presents a conceptual research framework for investigating virtual societies.
As this subject area is relatively new to the research world, this paper
presents a framework for studying virtual societies. To date, much of the
relevant research has been in the area of telecommuting or teleworking. But,
the changes to peoples' lives that may be a result of the movement to virtual
societies encompass far more than alterations to the way we perform work in the
future. The framework portrays the driving forces and the issues related to the
study of this ensuing societal form. A review of the driving forces and issues
of the virtual society stimulated the development of the research framework. It
identifies technology as the enabler that is paving the way for society to be
transformed to virtual communities, but does not dwell solely on the
technology. Our endeavors focus on identifying the critical forces and issues
within a global context in order to provide a foundation for future research.
Agres, C.,
D. Edberg, and M. Igbaria. (April-June 1998). Transformation to Virtual
Societies: Forces and Issues. The Information Society, 14, No. 2, p. 71-82.
Abstract
This article presents a conceptual research framework for investigating
virtual societies. As this subject area is relatively new to the research
world, this paper presents a framework for studying virtual societies. To date,
much of the relevant research has been in the area of telecommuting or
teleworking, but the changes to people's lives that may be a result of the
movement to virtual societies encompass far more than alterations to the way we
perform work in the future. The framework portrays the driving forces and the
issues related to the study of this ensuing societal form.
A review of the driving forces and issues of the virtual society
stimulated the development of the research framework. It identifies technology
as the enabler that is paving the way for society to be transformed into
virtual communities, but does not dwell solely on the technology. Our endeavors
focus on identifying the critical forces and issues within a global context in
order to provide a foundation for future research.
Anderson, Terry, and Heather Kanuka. (Sep 1997). On-Line Forums: New Platforms for Professional Development and Group Collaboration. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 3, No. 3.
Abstract
This study evaluated the output, level of
participation and perceptions of effectiveness and value among participants in
a virtual forum. Twenty-three experts in the field of adult education and
community development were invited to participate in a three-week interactive
session using a WWW-based, asynchronous computer conferencing system. Data
gathered through surveys, interviews, transcript analysis and on-line
discussion revealed that this technology has relative advantage for organizers
and sponsors, but is perceived by most users as being less satisfying than
face-to-face interaction. The on-line forum was found to be observable,
trialable and relatively easy to use (compared with existing tools), indicating
that this innovation has potential to become a widespread medium for continuing
professional education.
Aoki,
Kumiko. (1994). Virtual communities in
Abstract
In recent years, virtual communities have proliferated thanks to the
converging technologies of telecommunications and computing. In the
The convergence of telecommunication and computer technologies has
enabled networking of people regardless of their geographical and temporal
differences. The scope of such computer networks has been expanding
exponentially since the first extensive comp uter network, ARPANET, was created
in 1968 by the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the U.S. Department of
Defense (now DARPA, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). Now its
successor, Internet, comprises 1.7 million computers in more than 125 countries
(Stix, 1993); most of them at universities, government agencies and
companies. As such computer networks
have
expanded beyond the small communities of scientific researchers and
been applied in a variety of fields such as education and business,
communication through such computer networks is beginning to alter the ways in
which people interact with one another in formal and informal ways.
Araki,
Abstract
Computer networks have introduced and added various new dimensions to
life and society, especially in the realm of information. Among others, the
so-called virtual community being formed in information space is a crucial
topic for sociological study. However, the term might be a kind of metaphor of
"real community," which sociologists have long studied. If so, it is
necessary to clarify its nature and difference from that of real world as a
theoretical matter in sociology, and to develop appropriate ways of analyzing
those phenomena as a new reality. The task here is to present a conceptual
framework for approaching the information space and a method for analyzing
information exchange processes and the relationships between participants in
the community on the electronic network.
Arrow,
Holly, Jennifer L. Berdahl, Kelly S. Bouas, Kellina M. Craig, Anne Cummings,
Linda Lebie, Joseph E. McGrath, Kathleen M. O’Connor, Jonathon A. Rhoades, and
Ann Schlosser. (1995-1996). Time, Technology and Groups: An Integration.
Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Vol. 4, No. 2/3, p. 253-261.
Abstract
A conclusion to this special journal issue (see Abstracts) comparing
the relative effectiveness of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and
face-to-face communication (FTF) in small work groups. The experiments reported
found that communication medium had substantial and pervasive effects on the
patterning of group interactions, development of group identity, establishment
of participation and influence hierarchies, and the approach to and results of
the group efforts. These effects changed over time, and different media effects
evidenced varying patterns depending on the particular aspect of group
interaction, development, and/or performance. Both CMC and FTF combined
different advantages and disadvantages, and it is argued that the effectiveness
of a particular communication form must be related to the specific conditions
and goals of the group.
Aycock,
Alan. (1995). Technologies of the Self: Foucault and Internet Discourse.
Special issue, Journal of Computer-mediated Communication, Vol. 1, No. 2.
Abstract
While some have argued that computing via the Internet offers a vision
of freedom and a shared humanity, others have claimed with equal vehemence that
it may become the instrument of global surveillance and personal alienation.
Foucault's notion of self-fashioning (souci de soi) exemplifies both sides of
this debate, since fashions may both be imposed and freely chosen. To present a
Foucauldian perspective on fashioning of self online I use instances of recent
postings to the Usenet news group rec.games.chess. Key aspects of
self-fashioning that I identify include romantic and modernist images of
interior experience, the importance of keeping your "cool," the
discussion of techniques designed to improve skill or strength, and the
purchase and use of chess computers as icons of mastery. Finally, I consider
some implications of this Foucauldian approach for future research on Internet
self-constructions.
Bajan, P.
(1998). New communities, new social norms? Studia Psychologica, Vol. 40, No. 4,
p. 361-366.
Abstract
New information and communication technologies (ICT), like Internet,
hypermedia or mobile communication, critically influence the ways we work,
live, communicate or behave. The article presents research opportunities for
social scientists exploring the social norms issues of human behavior as well
as interesting outcomes published by Western researchers of computer mediated
communication and virtual communities.
Barak, A.
(Fall 1999). Psychological applications on the Internet: A discipline on the
threshold of a new millennium. Applied and Preventive Psychology, Vol. 8, No.
4, p. 231-245.
Abstract
The rapid developments in computers and information technology over the
past decade has had an impact on psychology, which has moved in this context
from local computer applications to network applications that take advantage of
the Internet. This article critically reviews various psychological
applications in use on the Internet, with special emphasis given to their
promises and advantages as well as to their shortcomings and problems.
Specifically, 10 types of psychological Internet applications are reviewed:
information resources on psychological concepts and issues; self-help guides;
psychological testing and assessment; help in deciding to undergo therapy;
information about specific psychological services; single-session psychological
advice through e-mail or e-bulletin boards; ongoing personal counseling and
therapy through e-mail; real-time counseling through chat, web telephony, and
videoconferencing; synchronous and asynchronous support groups, discussion
groups, and group counseling; and psychological and social research. Following
a discussion of ethical and related concerns, a call is voiced for intensive
research and international brainstorming.
Barbatsis,
Gretchen, and Kenneth Hansen. (Sept 1999). The Performance of Cyberspace: An
Exploration Into Computer-Mediated Reality. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, Vol. 5, No. 1.
Abstract
This phenomenological enquiry into cyberspace examines the concept of
space and metaphor, explaining ‘cyber’space as a figurative term and a
figurative space, as something projected as a shared mental concept. Reception
theory is used to theorize this figurative space as an ideational object
constituted by a ‘text-reader’ relationship. The performance of ‘cyber’space is
described as a self-reflexive ideation about meaning making itself, and examined
as discursive, liminal, and transformative. Examination includes examples from
e-mail, chat, and 3D conference systems.
Barnes,
Sue, and Leonore M. Greller. (April 1994). Computer-Mediated Communication in
the Organization. Communication Education, Vol. 43, No. 2, p. 129-142.
Abstract
Examines the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and
computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) in organizations. The introduction
of CMC and CSCW applications - eg, e-mail, computer conferencing, groupware,
group decision support systems, and media spaces - alters the flow of
information exchange within an organization and between organizations, and
creates different channels of and methods for communication. CSCW is used with
electronic data interchange (EDI) to enable reproduction and manufacture of
computer-aided designs. The combination of CSCW and EDI has enabled
computer-aided designs to be transmitted worldwide and reproduced through
computerized machinery. Other EDI applications, eg, Just-in-Time and Quick
Response, have enabled the creation of electronic partnerships among suppliers,
producers, distributors, and retailers. Benefits and consequences associated
with the use of these technologies are discussed.
Barrett,
E., and V. Lally. (Mar 1999). Gender differences in an on-line learning
environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Vol. 15, No. 1, p. 48-60.
Abstract
This paper focuses upon the use of Computer Mediated Communication
(CMC) in a specific learning context by a small community of postgraduate (MEd)
distance learners and their tutors. Content analysis of on-line dialogues was
used to investigate learning and socio-emotional behaviour within this
community. The data presented suggests that men and women took distinctively different
roles in the on-line learning environment, Most significantly, the cognitive
and metacognitive (learning) content of on-line seminar contributions by men
and women was found to be similar, but their social and interactive behaviour
was significantly different. In particular, it was found that within a formal
on-line learning environment men sent (on average) more messages than women;
they wrote messages which were twice as long as those sent my women; and made
more socio-emotional contributions than women. Women, however, were found to
contribute more 'interactive' messages than men. This paper concludes that the
application of CMC technology to a specific learning context may reproduce
Sender differences within a learning community.
Baym,
Nancy K. (1995). From Practice to Culture on Usenet. Sociological Review Monograph, p. 29-52.
Abstract
Usenet distributes thousands of topically oriented discussion groups,
reaching millions of readers worldwide. Newsgroup participants often create
distinctive subcultures, which have been all but ignored in scholarly work in
computer networks and computer-mediated communication. Illustrated is how
usenet discourse can operate as a culture-creating force, and how practice
theory can be used to approach usenet cultures, with a deep analysis of one
message in the group "rec.arts.tv.soaps." This group, which discusses
TV soap operas, is one of the most prolific on usenet. The use of a single
message demonstrates the potential of all usenet talk as a locus of cultural
meaning. The claims made here about such meanings in rec.arts.tv.soaps are
grounded in ethnographic research on this group during 1993-1995.
Baym, N.
(1995). The Performance of Humor in Computer-Mediated Communication. Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 1, No. 2.
Abstract
There has been very little work on humor in computer-mediated
communication (CMC). Indeed, the implication of some CMC work is that the
medium is inhospitable to humor. This essay argues that humor can be
accomplished in CMC and can be critical to creating social meaning on-line. The
humor of the Usenet newsgroup rec.arts.tv.soaps (r.a.t.s.), which discusses
soap operas, is analyzed. The method combines user surveys with message
analysis to show the prevalence and importance of humor in r.a.t.s. Close
analysis of five exemplary humorous messages shows how the group's humor arises
from the juxtaposition of close and distant readings of the soap opera, which
place the participants in close relationships to one another, and distance them
from the soap opera's writers and producers. Group solidarity is also created
as participants draw extensively on previous messages to ground their own
humor. Humor is also shown to be a primary mechanism for the establishment of
individuality, as participants combine the shared meanings and play with the
shared parameters of the group in idiosyncratic ways.
Baym,
Nancy K. (1996). Agreements and Disagreements in a Computer-Mediated
Discussion. Research on Language and Social Interaction, Vol. 29, No. 4, p.
315-345.
Abstract
Examines agreements and disagreements in 1 computer mediated discussion
group, constraining them with what is known about those activities in oral
conversation and letters. This discussion group is a hybrid between mass and
interpersonal communication. The medium is discussed, and agreements and
disagreements in a Usenet newsgroup are examined. Group members were
interviewed, and responses were collected to 2 sets of survey questions.
Information about events and participants were collected, including how many
people participated, how many messages there were and other macrolevel
information. Results show agreements appears to be easier to perform whereas
disagreement requires more strategic mitigation. Differences between the way
these activities are done orally or in letters are noted. In both agreements
and disagreements, quotation is ubiquitous: there were fewer secondary
assessments than one might expect, and there is pervasive elaboration.
Agreements further differ from their oral and epistolary counterparts in their
frequent use of reasoning and qualification. Nest to quotation with reference,
the most common feature of both agreements and disagreements was elaboration.
Beller, Michal, and Ehud Or. (Dec 1998). The Crossroads between Lifelong Learning and Information Technology: A Challenge Facing Leading Universities. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 4, No. 2.
Abstract
Technology-Mediated Learning and Distance
Learning (TML/TMDL), and particularly asynchronous learning through the
Internet, are becoming major vehicles for fulfilling the needs of Lifelong
Learning (LLL). A hybrid model of studies using technological means is leading
to the development of a new pedagogy of learning and teaching. Various new
models of higher education are evolving in
Berdahl,
Jennifer L., and Kellina M. Craig. (1995-1996). Equality of Participation and
Influence in Groups: The Effects of Communication Medium and Sex Composition.
Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Vol. 4, No. 2/3, p. 179-201.
Abstract
The relative impact of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and
face-to-face communication (FTF) on group participation and influence levels is
examined in a study of seven weekly meetings of 30 FTF and 30 CMC groups,
testing the effects of group communication medium and sex composition. CMC
groups were perceived by participants (119 undergraduate psychology students)
as more gender-centralized during the first meetings, though perceptions of the
CMC and FTF groups converged during the latter six meetings. The predictions of
three popular theories commonly employed to study the effects of sex
composition on group interaction (proportional, expectation states, and social
role theory) were tested, and results provided little support for their
assumptions. Results also challenged the presumption that participation and
influence are synonymous. Influence was perceived as most centralized in the
CMC majority-male groups and FTF majority-female groups. In CMC groups, the
minority gender was perceived as having increased influence while no such trend
was observed in the FTF groups. Directions for future research are discussed.
Berthold, Michael, Fay
Sudweeks, Sid Newton, and Richard Coyne. (March 1997). Clustering on the Nets:
Applying an Autoassociative Neural Network to Computer-Mediated Discussions.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 2, No. 4.
Abstract
ProjectH, a research group of a hundred researchers, produced a huge
amount of data from computer mediated discussions. The data classified several
thousand postings from over 30 newsgroups into 46 categories. One approach to
extract typical examples from this database is presented in this paper. An
autoassociative neural network is trained on all 3000 coded messages and then
used to construct typical messages under certain specified conditions. With
this method the neural network can be used to create "typical"
messages for several scenarios. This paper illustrates the architecture of the
neural network that was used and explains the necessary modifications to the
coding scheme. In addition several "typicality sets" produced by the
neural net are shown and their generation is explained. In conclusion, the
autoassociative neural network is used to explore threads and the types of
messages that typically initiate or contribute longer lasting threads.
Blanchard,
A. and T. Horan. (Fall 1998). Virtual communities and social capital. Social
Science Computer Review, Vol. 16, No. 3, p. 293-307.
Abstract
Putnam has developed a theory of social capital to explain the effect
of decreasing community participation and civic engagement on declining
institutional performance. Subsequently, there has been much speculation as to
whether emerging virtual communities can counteract this trend. The authors
apply the findings of computer-mediated communication and virtual communities
to the networks, norms, and trust of social capital and also examine the
possible effects of virtual communities on the privatization of leisure time.
They conclude that social capital and civic engagement will increase when
virtual communities develop around physically based communities and when these
virtual communities foster additional communities of interest Through a
preliminary analysis, the authors identify potential communities of interest
including education, exchange of general community information, and
opportunities for government and political participation They conclude.with a
discussion of current trends and research needs.
Breen,
Marcus. (Sep 1997). Information Does not Equal Knowledge: Theorizing the
Political Economy of Virtuality. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,
Vol.
3, No. 3.
Abstract
This paper argues that causation theory has a
role in discussions about knowledge in the virtual context. Drawing on cultural
studies, it suggests that the fragmentation of rational knowledge in the
postmodern world has produced a focus on information that is unaware of its
history. A knowledge gap has been produced that needs careful consideration by
those people and institutions advocating the use of virtual technologies.
Virtuality is about a politics of convenience, where contemporary knowledge is
characterized by two modes of action: mathematics and marketing. The paper
suggests that contemporary capitalism fits well with this type of knowledge. It
argues that other ways of conceptualizing causal relationships between
information-knowledge are necessary in the virtual world.
Brignall,
Wells. (1999). The Internet as a Tool for a Community: Virtual Citizens and the
New Technocracy. Society for the Study of Social Problems (SSSP).
Abstract
Discussions on the Internet as a possible tool for an improved
democracy have centered on using Internet technology to further the exchange of
communication between citizens, the possible implications of voting online, and
increased political involvement through Internet use. Focus here is on
individuals having a virtual Internet town meeting. Individuals online have
almost complete autonomy in many Internet areas, with little incentive to feel
responsible for their actions or to the community. There is no social contract
with other individuals, and because of the loss of the traditional interaction
ritual, individuals lack the ability to use other valuable communication cues
in understanding the tone of a conversation. Some of the possible impacts of a
democratic Internet model are discussed. Since there is no model currently in
use, some assumptions are made regarding how such models might develop. Some
possible theoretical implications of Internet use and voting are also explored.
Bordia, Prashant. (Jan 1997). Face-to-face versus computer-mediated communication: A synthesis of the experimental literature. The Journal of Business Communication, Vol. 34, No. 1, p. 99-120.
Abstract The findings of published experimental
studies (n equals 18) that compared face-to-face and computer-mediated
communication (CMC) are synthesized. The literature is pulled together by way
of 10 propositions, each presented with the supporting evidence. In general,
discussions on CMC take longer, produce more ideas, and have greater equality
of participation. There is reduced normative pressure and poorer comprehension
of the discussion in CMC. Findings regarding quality of performance,
uninhibited behavior choice shift, attitude change, and evaluation of
communication partner are not definitive. Factors limiting the internal and
external validity of these studies are also discussed
Bordia,
P., N. DiFonzo, and A. Chang. (Feb 1999). Rumor as group problem solving:
Development patterns in informal computer-mediated groups. Small Group
Research, Vol. 30, No. 1, p. 8-28.
Abstract
There is a dearth of research focusing on developmental changes in
computer-mediated communication groups. In this study, developmental patterns
in 14 informal groups on computer-mediated networks were analyzed using the
Group Development Observation System. Results indicated marked similarity
between the patterns found with the CMC groups in this study and those reported
in the literature on face-fo-face groups. The findings were in agreement with
recent longitudinal research that has noted similarities in the two types of
group communication overtime.
Bruckman,
Amy. (Jan 1996). Finding One's Own Space in Cyberspace. Technology Review, Vol.
99, No. 1, p. 48-54.
Reviewed by David Silver
In this fascinating essay, Bruckman challenges notions of Internet
violence (cyberporn, sexism, flames, to name a few forms), by putting forth a
number of ways to create new and diverse virtual communities. The author, a
doctoral student in the M.I.T. Media Lab and founder of two virtual communities
(MediaMOO and MOOSE Crossing), uses her experience as both a critic and
constructor of virtual communities in order to discuss a variety of sites,
including MediaMOO and the New York-based ECHO (East Cost Hang Out) bulletin
board system. Drawing from her case studies, Bruckman suggests a number of
elements which can help foster a communal atmosphere: user identification,
active participation, and admissions policies.
Calhoun,
Craig. (Summer 1998). Community without Propinquity Revisited: Communications
Technology and the Transformation of the Urban Public Sphere. Sociological
Inquiry, Vol. 68, No. 3, p. 373-397.
Abstract
In light of recent discussions of the Internet touting "virtual
community" and a capacity to enhance citizen power in democracies, a more
rigorous understanding of community is sought, suggesting that relationships forged
with the aid of electronic technology may do more to foster "categorical
identities" than they do dense, multiplex, and systematic networks of
relationships and an emphasis on community needs to be complemented by more
direct attention to the social bases of discursive publics that engage people
across lines of basic difference in collective identities. Previous protest
movements have shown that communications media have an ambiguous mix of
effects. They facilitate popular mobilization, but they also make it easy for
relatively ephemeral protest activity to outstrip organizational roots.
Further, they encourage governments to avoid concentrating their power in
specific spatial locations and thus make revolution in some ways more
difficult.
Capussotti,
Enrica. (1997). Italian Cyberpunk: A Networked Community. Quaderni di
Sociologia, Vol. 41, No. 13, p. 59-77.
Abstract
An analysis of the cyberpunk electronic conference (virtual community)
in the Italian computer network considers the use of a common language. After a
presentation of the cyberpunk attitude, the development of a community
structured through the exchange of cyberpunk messages is explored. The
evolution of the cyberpunk virtual community is traced, noting the gender
relations, flame wars (virulent personal attacks between users), typology of
participants, and the ambivalence of the communications in use.
Chester, Andrea, and Gillian Gwynne. (Dec 1998). Online Teaching: Encouraging Collaboration through Anonymity. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 4, No. 2.
Abstract
This paper describes our experience as tertiary
teachers (and learners) in cyberspace. A brief evaluation of the literature on
computer-mediated communication (CMC) is presented, together with a review of
the major theoretical positions explaining online interaction. The
filtered-cues and social information processing perspectives are compared in
the light of more recent formulations of the hyperpersonal. With a desire to
facilitate and critically evaluate a hyperpersonal learning context or online
learning community, we developed a range of strategies including the use of
aliases. The subject is described together with our observations of the
benefits and disadvantages of pseudonymity for education.
Chung, Pei Chi. (1997). The Social Dimensions of Computer-Mediated Communication: A Comparative Analysis of Two On-Line Discussion Groups. American Sociological Association (ASA).
Abstract
Examines the diversity and complexity of group interaction in
computer-mediated communication. Recent studies have emphasized that
computer-mediated communication enables an asynchronous and technologically
mediated interaction in group communication. A qualitative comparison of two
online discussion groups, based on a total of 3,000+ posted messages, provides
further analysis of the influence of computer technology on the development of
human communication. Lewis Coser's theory of social conflicts is drawn on to
explore how the use of language in Usenet communication differs from that in
Listserv communication. Coser contends that communal conflict exists in a
closed environment, and noncommunal conflict in an open social environment.
Results correspond to Coser's thesis that a homogeneous group tends to achieve
higher consensus than a less-homogeneous group does in computer-mediated
communication. In Usenet communication, the high bandwidth of access around the
globe increases the group size and membership. In Listserv communication, the
point-to-point system restricts the group structure so that social relationship
is relatively higher than that in Usenet communication. "Flame war"
in an open environment tends to become direct and personal, whereas conflict in
a restricted structure demonstrates implicit rhetoric to maintain harmony in
small group communication.
Coleman,
L.H., C.E. Paternite, and R.C. Sherman. (Jan 1999). A reexamination of
deindividuation in synchronous computer-mediated communication. Computers in
Human Behavior, Vol. 15, No. 1, p. 51-65.
Abstract
Classical deindividuation theory has been posited as a useful framework
for understanding certain cognitive and behavioral changes commonly seen in
computer-mediated communication (CMC). Participants in CMC discussion groups
were significantly more immersed in the discussion than face-to-face (FTF)
discussants, and tended not to perceive their team members as individuals,
providing evidence that the CMC users met the cognitive criteria for a state of
deindividuation. Nevertheless, CMC participants did not produce more negative
behaviors than FTF participants, demonstrating that it is insufficient to
attribute negative behavior solely to a deindividuated state. These results are
discussed in light of classical deindividuation theory and are contrasted with
predictions from the more recent social identity/deindividuation model.
Cutler, R. H. (April 1995). Distributed Presence and Community in Cyberspace. Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century, Vol. 3, No. 2 . Available from http://www.helsinki.fi/science/optek/(1995)/n2/cutler.txt
Abstract
Today the technology of cyberspace is creating
the social situation for the formation of a new understanding of community. In
response to the environment in which people find themselves working and living,
they appropriate the technology for their own
needs. The
consequent constructed social space is the fertile ground for new social
relationships, roles, and a sense of self. Interaction is the key feature of
cyberspace in the exchange of information from which a sense of self and
control can be built. The result of new senses of self is a new sense of
presence that fills the space in fluid forms of community. Community for
persons living in a technological environment is shifting from culture-defining
mass media to that of a proliferation of media as alternative sources of
mediated experience. Each aspect of this new social situation will be
investigated in turn: the features of cyberspace, the response of human social
needs, and the building of community through presence.
D'Ambra,
J., R.E. Rice, M. O'Connor. (May/June 1998). Computer-mediated communication
and media preference: an investigation of the dimensionality of perceived task
equivocality and media richness. Behaviour and Information Technology, Vol. 17,
No. 3, p. 164-174.
Abstract
Computer-mediated communication is the foundation of networking and
electronic communities. As the use of new communication technologies continues
to proliferate throughout organizations, new modes of interaction between
individuals and groups emerge, presenting alternative media choices. How
individuals choose between these modes has stimulated much research into
theoretical perspectives of media choice within networked and electronic
communities. Media Richness Theory is one of these theoretical perspectives.
The research presented in this paper investigates the underlying factors of
Media Richness Theory, task equivocality and media richness. The results
obtained provide evidence to suggest that equivocality may not be
unidimensional, and that the richness of media is perceived multidimensionally
in terms of the information carrying capacity of media. The findings on
dimensionality of equivocality raise doubts as to the basic assumptions of this
concept and media richness theory.
Dennis,
A.R., S. T. Kinney, and Y. T. Hung. (Aug 1999). Gender differences in the
effects of media richness. Small Group Research, Vol. 30, No. 4, p.
405-437.
Abstract
Media richness theory argues that performance improves when ream
members use "richer" media for equivocal tasks. Virtually all
research on media richness theory has focused on perceptions: surveys of
individuals 'beliefs about media rather than investigating actual performance
with richer versus leaner media. This experiment studied the effects of media
richness on decision making in two-person teams (all male, all female, and
mixed gender) using one form of "new media" (computer-mediated
communication), participants rook longer to make decisions with computer-mediated
communication. Matching richness to task equivocality only resulted in better
performance for the all-female teams, likely because females are more sensitive
to nonverbal communication and more affected by its absence in
computer-mediated communication. For remaining teams, using richer face-to-face
communication did not improve performance to a greater extent for more
equivocal than less equivocal tasks. Results support media richness theory only
for all-female teams.
DeSanctis,
G., and Peter Monge. (June 1998). Communication Processes for Virtual
Organizations. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 3, No. 4.
Abstract
Communication is fundamental to any form of organizing but is
preeminent in virtual organizations. Virtual organizations are characterized by
(a) highly dynamic processes, (b) contractual relationships among entities, (c)
edgeless, permeable boundaries, and (d) reconfigurable structures. Relative to
more traditional settings, communication processes that occur in virtual
contexts are expected to be rapid, customized, temporary, greater in volume,
more formal, and more relationship-based. To glean insight into communication
processes for virtual organizations, we draw on the rich body of literature on
synchronous and asynchronous electronic organizational communication. The vast
set of empirical findings regarding mediated communication can foreshadow how
communication will change as firms "go virtual." Six areas of
electronic communication research provide implications for the major aspects of
virtual organization design: (1) communication volume and efficiency, (2)
message understanding, (3) virtual tasks, (4) lateral communication, (5) norms
of technology use, and (6) evolutionary effects.
Donath,
Judith, Karrie Karahalios and Fernanda Viégas. (June 1999). Visualizing
Conversation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 4, No. 4.
Abstract
Although the archive of text generated by a persistent conversation
(i.e. newsgroup, mailing list, recorded chat, etc.) is searchable, it is not
very expressive of the underlying social patterns. In this paper we will
discuss the design of graphical interfaces that reveal the social structure of
the conversation by visualizing patterns such as bursts of activity, the arrival
of new members, or the evolution of conversational topics. Our focus is on two
projects: Chat Circles, a graphical interface for synchronous conversation and
Loom, a visualization of threaded discussion. Through these examples we will
explore key issues in the generation, design and use of graphical interfaces
for persistent conversations.
Douglas, Mary, and Gabriele Pallotti. (June 1995). The Home as a
Virtual Community. Rassegna Italiana di Sociologia, Vol. 36, No. 2, p. 229-250.
Abstract
An anthropological analysis of consumption asserts that the central
consuming unit of society is the home. After critically assessing
oversimplified economic approaches to consumption, based on a hypothetical
individual with rational, culture-neutral consumer practices, problems with the
symbolic/natural values of goods found in later revisions of sociologically
based consumption theory are discussed. Here, the home is identified as a
virtual community, containing organizational patterns of consumption that parallel
those in general society. A typology of four virtual community homes is
sketched - the individualist, the isolated, the traditional complex group, and
the commune - and contrasted with consumption behavior of the typical non-home
- the hotel.
Du Pont,
Pete. (May 15, 1999). Yesterday, today and tomorrow: How the Internet will
revolutionize public policy. Vital Speeches of the Day, Vol. 65, No. 15, p.
477-479.
Abstract
We are entering into what Winston Churchill called "the broad
sunlit uplands" of individual opportunity. As a result, we will see a very
different kind of public policy around the world in the next 3 to 4 decades.
The computer, the Internet, the microprocessor are giving individuals power.
The Age of Technology will change the whole paradigm of knowledge accumulation.
The availability of information is going to open up a lot of cabinets that used
to be locked in the government, in industry and among academics.
Dyson, Esther, George Gilder, George Keyworth, and Alvin Toffler. (1996). "Cyberspace and the American dream: A magna carta for the knowledge age." (Release 1.2, August 22, 1994). Information Society, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 295-308.
As humankind explores this new electronic
frontier of knowledge, it must confront again the most profound questions of
how to organize itself for the common good. The meaning of freedom, structures
of self-government, definition of property, nature of competition, conditions
for cooperation, sense of community, and nature of progress will each be redefined
for the Knowledge Age - just as they were redefined for anew age of industry
some 250 years ago. The nature of cyberspace, the nature and ownership of
property, the nature of the marketplace, the nature of freedom , the essence of
community, and the role of government are each examined in detail.
Endo,
Kaoru. March (1998). Projection into Virtuality: Modernity and Virtual
Communities. Japanese Sociological Review, Vol. 48, No. 4, p. 50-64.
Abstract
Analyzes the relationship between modernity and global
computer-mediated communication, especially the Internet, to explain recent
social changes. Because the Internet is very important to many aspects of
today's global society, and virtuality has become an essential feature of
modernity, it is argued that modernity develops the virtuality of societies.
How problems of virtual communities both reflect and contradict those of
modernity is discussed. It is suggested that understanding the dynamics of
computer-mediated communication technology and applying these insights to
society as a whole can help improve the human condition.
Escobar,
Arturo, David Hess, Isabel Licha, Will Sibley, Marilyn Strathern, and Judith
Sutz. (June 1994). Welcome to Cyberia: Notes on the Anthropology of
Cyberculture. Current Anthropology, Vol. 35, No. 3, p. 211-223.
Abstract
Significant changes in the nature of social life are being brought
about by computer, information, and biological technologies, to the extent
that-some argue-a new cultural order, ''cyberculture,'' is coming into being.
This paper presents an overview of the types of anthropological analyses that
are being conducted in the area of new technologies and suggests additional
steps for the articulation of an anthropology of cyberculture. it builds upon
science, technology, and society studies in various fields and on critical
studies of modernity. The implications of technoscience for both
anthropological theory and ethnographic research are explored.
Consistent throughout all the literature about CMC is the concept of
community - that sense of group identity that reduces social isolation,
encourages interactive mental engagement, and provides a social context for
conversation and dialogue. The community concept provides the thread that binds
the elements of communication theory, distance education, and learning theory
into the whole of the instructional CMC context (Connolly & Schneebeck,
1993; Kay, 1995; Levy, 1995; Rheingold, 1995; Stoll, 1995).
Escobar,
Arturo. (May 1995). Anthropology and the Future: New Technologies and the
Reinvention of Culture. Futures, Vol. 27, No. 4, p. 409-421.
Abstract
Computer, information and biological technologies are bringing about a
fundamental transformation in the structure and meaning of modern society and
culture. Not only is this transformation clearly susceptible to anthropological
inquiry but it constitutes perhaps a privileged arena for advancing
anthropology's project of understanding human societies from the vantage points
of biology, language, history and culture. This article reviews the types of
cultural analyses that are being conducted today in the social nature, impact,
and use of new technologies and suggests additional contexts and steps toward
the articulation of an 'anthropology of cyberculture'.
Fernback,
J., & Thompson, B. (1995). Computer-Mediated Communication and the American
Collectivity: The Dimensions of Community Within Cyberspace, International
Communication Association.
Ferris,
Sharmila Pixy. (1996). Women On-Line: Cultural and Relational Aspects of
Women's Communication in On-Line Discussion Groups. Interpersonal Computing and
Technology, Vol. 4, No. 3/4, p. 29-40.
Abstract
Researchers have predicted that the unique characteristics of
computer-mediated communication would mitigate gender differences. The recent
increase in participation of women on-line provides an opportunity to
investigate this prediction. A review of the literature leads to the conclusion
that women's communication in cyberspace often mirrors that of face-to-face communication,
linguistically and relationally. However, on-line communities can offer women a
unique communication opportunity, allowing for the development and display of a
distinct relational and cultural style.
Fischer,
C. S. (Winter 1997). Technology and community: Historical complexities.
Sociological Inquiry, Vol. 67, No. 1, p. 113-18.
Abstract
As a comment on speculations that new electronic technologies will
revolutionize community, this article points to three lessons drawn from
historical studies on earlier technologies such as the telephone: (1) Effects
are modest; (2) effects differ from one specific technology to another; and (3)
the effects of any one technology can be contradictory.
Fuller, R.
(May 16, 1994). Human-Computer-Human Interaction: How Computers Affect
Interpersonal Communication. The Electronic Journal on Virtual Culture, Vol. 2,
No. 2. Available from http://www.uni-koeln.de/themen/cmc/text/fuller.94.txt
Abstract
There are two contemporary paradigms of the human-computer interface
(HCI) -- the conversation paradigm and the direct manipulation paradigm.
Neither one of these paradigms provides good models for designers of electronic
media. A paradigm based
on using the computer as a medium for conversation (rather than as the
target of conversation) might resolve this problem. With this new paradigm,
users of electronic media may be less likely to misperceive someone else's
personality.
Two groups of subjects were tested on their abilities to make
personality assessments of people they had communicated with. The first group
of paired subjects were users of traditional electronic media. Each pair
consisted of Person A, who took the test as if they were someone (Person B)
they had communicated with but had never seen, and Person B, who took the same
test as if they were themselves. A second group of paired subjects who had
never communicated using electronic media were asked to do the same task. The
electronic media group consistently perceived the person they communicated with
to be more analytical and judgmental than that person perceived themselves as
being. There were no significant differences in perceptions in the face-to-face
(no electronic media) group.
Galegher
J., L. Sproull, and S. Kiesler. (Oct 1998). Legitimacy, Authority, and
Community in Electronic Support Groups. Written Communication, Vol. 15, No. 4,
p. 493-530.
Abstract
In electronic support groups, people use Internet-based electronic text
communication to discuss personal problems or disorders with others who share
common circumstances. Although their discussions exist only in the electronic
medium, these groups can be viewed usefully as discourse communities. The
authors draw on what is known about two other popular sources of
help-face-to-face self-help groups and self-help books-to frame the rhetorical
challenges faced by members of electronic support groups. The authors then
compare the discourse of electronic support groups with that of electronic
hobby groups to demonstrate that the two sets differ in terms of the rhetorical
behavior of their participants. The authors analyze messages to determine how
members establish legitimacy and authority in their texts and how message
exchange gives rise to group identity and a sense of community Our observations
indicate that although some discourse characteristics and some rhetorical
features are common to all the electronic groups we studied, others are unique
to the special requirements of electronic support groups.
Garcia,
A.C., and J. B. Jacobs. (1999). The eyes of the beholder: Understanding the
turn-taking system in quasi-synchronous computer-mediated communication.
Research on Language and Social Interaction, Vol. 32, No. 4, p. 337-367.
Abstract
This article is a comparison of the turn-taking systems in computer-mediated
communication (CMC) and oral conversation. Previous research on CMC has relied
on printouts of conversations as data, whereas we used videotaped recordings of
each participant's computer screen in order to capture the interactional process
of producing the conversation. We used a transcription system developed
specifically for this type of analysis that enabled us to collate the actions
and experiences of each participant onto one document. Because of this, we were
able to see what information each participant had at the time they made the
decision to write, post, edit, or erase a message. This article is based on 4
quasi-synchronous CMC (QS-CMC) conversations between students in a college
classroom. We discovered that the rum-taking system of QS-CMC is substantially
different from the rum-taking system of oral conversation (Sacks, Schegloff,
and Jefferson, 1974), and we describe some of the implications of this
difference for the structure of interaction in QS-CMC.
Garton,
L., C. Haythornthwaite, and B. Wellman. (June, 1997). Studying online social
networks. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Vol. 3, No. 1.
Abstract
When a computer network connects people or organizations, it is a
social network. Yet the study of such computer-supported social networks has
not received as much attention as studies of human-computer interaction, online
person-to-person interaction, and computer-supported communication within small
groups. We argue the usefulness of a social network approach for the study of
computer-mediated communication. We review some basic concepts of social
network analysis, describe how to collect and analyze social network data, and
demonstrate where social network data can be, and have been, used to study
computer-mediated communication. Throughout, we show the utility of the social
network approach for studying computer-mediated communication, be it in
computer-supported cooperative work, in virtual community, or in more diffuse
interactions over less bounded systems such as the Internet.
Goodman,
Paul S., and Eric D. Darr. (Dec 1998). Computer-aided systems and communities:
Mechanisms for organizational learning in distributed environments
MIS
Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 4, p. 417-440.
Abstract
The role of computer-aided systems (CAS) for
enhancing organizational learning in distributed environments is examined. The
basic research questions are: 1. How do features of CAS enhance learning? 2.
How does organizational context influence the role of CAS in organizational learning?
The theoretical framework focuses on the decision to contribute and adopt
knowledge in distributed environments. Specifically, the intersections between
the features of CAS and inhibitors to contributing or adopting knowledge, in
the light of different organizational context variables, are investigated. Two
cases of information environments for knowledge sharing are examined: a formal
electronic library system and an informal community that uses a variety of
communication technologies.
Graetz,
K.A., E.S. Boyle, C.E. Kimble, P. Thompson, and J.L. Garloch. (Dec. 1998).
Information sharing face-to-face teleconferencing, and electronic chat groups.
Small Group Research, Vol. 29, No. 6, p. 714-743.
Abstract
Laboratory groups attempted to reach consensus on a simulated business
problem. Members of 4-person groups received information on whether three
proposed systems met each of 10 desired criteria. Cast as a hidden profile
problem the information was distributed unevenly within the group. Groups communicated
using one of three formats:face-to-face, teleconference, or electronic chat. As
predicted, cognitive workload was significantly higher and fewer correct
decisions were obtained in the electronic chat condition versus the other two
formats. The electronic chat medium limited participants' ability to coordinate
and verify information. Electronic chat should be combined with collaboration
technology or groupware that facilitates information storage, organization, and
processing.
Granito,
A. J., Leo Groarke, and John Kohls. (Fall 1996). Open Peer Commentaries on
Virtuality, Conversation, and Morality. Technology Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, p.
215-226.
Abstract
Open peer commentaries are offered on Sandra L. Christensen's argument
((1996) [see Abstract 9810156]) that virtual technology influences the
conversations and interactions it transmits and facilitates. A. J. Granito
(Youngstown State U, OH) elaborates on Christensen's claim by examining the
preconditions of interaction and how they affect the relationship between
virtual reality mediation (in cyberspace) and corporate communication. Leo
Groarke (Wilfried Laurier U, Waterloo, Ontario) challenges Christensen's claims
through a historical analysis of other virtual environments that have
influenced human interaction in ancient Western societies. John Kohls (Gonzaga
U, Spokane, WA) focuses on the concept of the virtual community, comparing its
dynamics, codes, structures, and customs to actual communities and suggesting
that the virtual form may facilitate more social access and voice and contain
less prejudice.
Gregson,
K. (1998). Conversation and community or sequential monologues: An analysis of
politically oriented newsgroups. Proceedings of the ASIS Annual Meeting, Vol.
35, p. 531-541.
Abstract
People discuss politics with friends, families, at work, etc. With the
rise of computer mediated communication it seems logical that people would
create new online groups with whom to discuss politics. This paper is an
introductory exploration of two usenet newsgroups focused on political
discussions. The goal was to answer questions such as who is participating in
these online discussions and do the online groups resemble more traditional
discussion networks.
Griffith,
Terri L., and Gregory B. Northcraft. (May 1994). Distinguishing between the
Forest and the Trees: Media, Features, and Methodology in Electronic
Communication Research. Organization Science, Vol. 5, No. 2, p. 272-285.
Abstract
A methodological framework for conceptualizing and operationalizing
electronic communication research is presented that depicts the relationships
between media, media features, and individual and organizational outcomes. Its
utility is demonstrated through analysis of the participation of 180
undergraduate students in sealed-bid job negotiations. Communication of bids
was either paper-and-pencil or computer-mediated, with and without
documentation capabilities. Negotiators were either identified or anonymous.
Computer-mediated communication and the documentation and anonymous conditions
yielded less individually beneficial agreements. The effects of documentation
were less in the computer-mediated condition.
Gruber, S.
(Jul-Sep 1999). Communication gone wired: Working toward a
"practiced" cyberfeminism. Information Society, Vol. 15, No. 3, p.
199-208.
Abstract
This article complicates concepts of gender and race in virtual
environments by presenting a case study of an African American woman's
(Celie's) on-line personalities. It discusses how one woman's presence in a
college class and her on-line contributions to a (cyber)community of peers
influenced her and the group's perspectives on violence and gender issues. The
article shows that Celie's interactions on a virtual forum are related to and
an extension of a multitude of factors such as her upbringing, her schooling,
her wish to succeed in an environment often inhospitable and hostile to her
needs, and her gendered identity. A close analysis of her online voice provides
a starting point for cyberfeminists to look more closely at virtual forums and
their potential far enhancing student learning, diversity, and multiple
perspectives in classroom environments. This article also encourages feminist
scholars to continue explorations centered around the multiple discourse
strategies employed by participants in any given conversation.
Hacker,
Kenneth L., and Michael A. Todino. (1996). Virtual Democracy at the Clinton
White House: An Experiment in Electronic Democratisation. Javnost /The Public,
Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 71-86.
Abstract
Assesses the utility of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and
related communications technologies in helping to create democratization.
Electronic democratization (ie, the enhancement of democracy through new
communications technologies) increases the political power of those who have
been generally silenced within traditional forms of government. Survey data
gathered in (1994) for the Bill Clinton White House e-mail system are analyzed.
Findings are that CMC cannot offer meaningful democratization until it
addresses material needs and political domination. The White House e-mail
system provides information in a top-down manner, which does not help people
determine how to counter their economic or political marginalization. Despite
the fact that this system is formally open to all, it reproduces and maintains
a system of exclusion and stratification. Until political and economic
realities are changed, declarations that CMC aids democracy are destined to
remain unrealistically utopian.
Hampton,
K.N., and B.N. Wellman. (Nov-Dec 1999). Netville online and offline: Observing
and surveying a wired suburb. American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 43, No. 3, p.
475-492.
Abstract
Since the mid-1850s, scholars have debated how technological innovation
would affect community. The debate continues as the Internet makes it
increasingly possible for people to socialize, shop, work, learn, and
participate in leisure activities all from within their home. Will the movement
of these previously public activities into the private realm lead to reduced
participation in public activities? What will be the fate of community and
social relations as a result of the growth of computer-mediated communication?
Netville is a suburban Toronto development equipped with a high-speed network
as part of its design. The clustering of homes within this area allowed us to
study the social networks, civic involvement, Internet use, and attitudes of
residents. This article explores the research approach of the Netville project and
describes its main sources of data collection: surveys collected using computer
assisted interviewing and ethnographic fieldwork.
Hafner,
Katie. (May 1997). The Epic Saga of The Well: The World's Most Influential
Online Community (and it's not AOL). Wired, Vol. 5.05, p. 98-142.
Review by Robin Hammon:
This article is a journey through the history of The Well, an online
"community" started by left leaning intellectuals who had formerly
populated a commune in Tennessee and later found themselves living in San
Francisco. The Well has a reputation today as being a place where intelligent,
highly educated people go to have intellectual conversations about any number
of topics. The Well is the online home of Howard Rheingold, author of "The
Virtual Community", which is largely about The Well conferences he has
taken part in and in which he has come to know intimately dozens of other
users.
It was in the second year of operation that people first began to call
The Well a "community". There were two factors to this - It seems
that a disruptive poster had found their way to The Well and had upset many
people with her vicious and largely unprovoked online personal attacks. People
began to feel that she was ruining their community, which until this time had
been full of heated debates, but which mostly was a very civil place. Together
members of the Well had to devise a way to deal with this user. The second
"cohering factor" as Hafner calls it, was that The Well began having
face to face office parties for it's members. "In fact" writes
Hafner, "the community probably wouldn't have thrived solely in virtual
space. Problems that arose online got worked out offline, and vice versa."
One early user of The Well felt that his posts were largely ignored until he
made his way from Texas to one of the parties in San Francisco. The face to
face contact made him a real person to other users of The Well, and a real
member of the community. (110 - 111)
Not only do members of The Well work together to overcome their
collective online problems, they also rally around each other when members have
a personal crisis in the real world. Hafner gives details of how this occurred
when the 7 year old son of one member was diagnosed with leukaemia and other
users sent cards and sat at vigil. Another time, a teenaged member was unable
to afford the private school of his choice so other Well users put together
enough money to send him anyway. Hafner also tells the story of one user who
later became on of The Well's several mangers over the years, who found support
and encouragement when he located his birth mother after 40 years. (113 - 114)
One member comments saying that "I would have walked through fire for
these people. I had never experienced this kind of closeness with so many different
people all at once." (119)
The idea of "virtual community" has undergone serious
discussion on The Well over the years, starting with Howard Rheingold's virtual
community conference which generated 300 pages of discussion in it's first 6
weeks (and thousands more since then). (124) Perhaps it was a community when it
first started with a small number of like minded people, most of them living in
the San Francisco area and having met face to face with each other at Well
office parties. But today with thousands of members, The Well has grown to
large for such a close knit community feeling to prevail. Signs of this include
the drop in attendance at Well office parties, the proliferation of so many
conferences that many discuss the same issues but are entirely unknown to users
in other conferences. Also, there has been a proliferation of private
conferences on The Well, where only invited users may participate. (140, also
142)
Many visions of online communities can be seen in the day to day life
on The Well. People get to know one another intimately there. They feel that
they are part of a group with a shared identity. When many of The Well's users
go offline, they carry with them the pain of being flamed, the questions asked
by others, and even the pain and suffering of other members. That is, they
carry parts of their life on The Well into other parts of their lives. Intimate
contacts with others, feelings of group unity and belonging, and the carrying
of community problems and triumphs into the real world - is this enough to call
The Well a community? The answer to this probably depends on whether we believe
that the online world must mirror the offline world in every way, including in
the definitions we utilise in our study of it. We should conceptualise the term
"community" as having a different definition which is relational to
the differences between an offline community and an online community one.
Hampton, Keith N. (1998). The Wired Suburb: Glocalization On- and Offline. American Sociological Association (ASA).
Abstract
The Wired Suburb project is a longitudinal quantitative and qualitative
analysis of a residential community, "Netville," currently being
built in suburban Toronto (Ontario) where each home in the neighborhood has
been equipped with a series of advanced communication technologies. Data from
initial baseline surveys, logs of on-line activities, ethnographic
observations, and focus groups are drawn on to explore the possibility that, as
computer-mediated communication moves into the home, there will be an increase
in both local and global relations that brings about a
"glocalization" of society. The development of computer-supported
social networks holds the prospect of enhancing both nonlocal (global) and very
local communities. On the one hand, computer and telecommunication networks
enable long-distance contact, and the bandwidth they provide is wide enough to
support community ties of sociability and support as well as more instrumental
relationships. On the other hand, the computer interface ties participants in
computer-supported social networks to the source of their connectivity, ie,
their homes and offices. The development of on-line communities, and home-based
technologies that enable participation in work, leisure activities, shopping,
and education from the home, should encourage on-line communicators to stay at
home more and attend to their local surroundings, resulting in
"glocalization."
Haythornthwaite,
C., B. Wellman, and M. Mantei. (1995). Work relationships and media use: A
social network analysis. Group Decision and Negotiations, Vol. 4, No. 3, p.
193-211.
Abstract
Our research provided empirical evidence about the alternative means of
communication used by 25 members of a research group who had available to them:
unscheduled face-to-face encounters, scheduled face-to-face meetings,
electronic mail, telephone, fax, and desktop videoconferencing. The intent of
our research is to learn whether there are elements in existing group
communication patterns that suggest how future communication systems can be
designed or selected to fit the actual work relationships of a group. A
detailed social network survey provided information about what members of the
group communicated about, how they communicated, and with whom they communicated.
Most communication was done through a combination of media, but predominately
through unscheduled encounters, electronic mail, and scheduled meetings; people
rarely videoconferenced, telephoned, or faxed. Factor analysis reduced the 24
work relationships to six distinct dimensions: receiving work, giving work,
collaborative writing, major emotional support, sociability, and computer
programming. The proportion in which the three main media were used varied
according to the nature of the work dimension. Our findings suggest that a
multivariate perspective that considers group norms and practices, social
networks, and work dimensions is necessary to analyze media use.
Haythornthwaite,
C. (October 1998). Work, friendship, and media use for information exchange in
a networked organization. Journal of the American Society for Information
Science, Vol. 49, No. 12, p. 1101-1114.
Abstract
We use a social network approach to examine how work and friendship
ties in a university research group were associated with the kinds of media
used for different kinds of information exchange. The use of electronic mail,
unscheduled face-to-face encounters, and scheduled face-to-face meetings
predominated for the exchange of six kinds of information: Receiving Work, Giving
Work, Collaborative Writing, Computer Programming, Sociability, and Major
Emotional Support. Few pairs used synchronous desktop videoconferencing or the
telephone, E-mail was used in similar ways as face-to-face communication. The
more frequent the contact, the more "multiplex" the tie: A larger
number of media was used to exchange a greater variety of information. The
closeness of work ties and of friendship ties were each independently
associated with more interaction: A greater frequency of communication, the
exchange of more kinds of information, and the use of more media.
Hearst,
M.A., and J. Grudin. (Jan-Feb 1999). The changing relationship between
information technology and society: Has the ice man arrived? Tact on the
Internet. IEEE Intelligent Systems and Their Applications, Vol. 14, No. 1, p.
8-15.
Abstract
Society and information technology are rapidly co-evolving, and often
in surprising ways. In this installment of "Trends and
Controversies," we hear three different views on how society and networked
information technology are changing one another. Becoming socialized means
learning what kinds of behavior are appropriate in a given social situation.
The increasing trend of digitizing and storing our social and intellectual
interactions opens the door to new ways of gathering and synthesizing
information that was previously disconnected. In the first essay, Jonathan
Grudin-a leading thinker in the field of computer-supported cooperative
work-points out tat, like a naive child, information technology often ignores
important contextual cues, and tactlessly places people into potentially
embarrassing situations. He suggests that as we continue to allow computation
into the more personal and sensitive aspects of our lives, we must consider how
to make information technology more sophisticated about social expectations,
and become more sophisticated ourselves in understanding the nature of
computer-mediated services. In the second essay, I discuss a related issue-how
newly internetworked information technology allows people acting in their own
self-interest to indirectly affect the experiences of other people. It is to be
expected that people will try to trick or deceive systems that support
intrinsically social activities, such as running auctions. What is surprising
here is that technologies that do not obviously have a social aspect, such as
information-retrieval ranking algorithms, are nevertheless being manipulated in
unexpected ways once they "go social." In our third essay, Barry
Wellman-a sociologist and an expert in social network theory-explains how the
structure of social networks affects the ways we live and work. He describes
the move away from a hierarchical society into a society in which boundaries
are more permeable and pole are members of many loosely knit groups. He
introduces the notion of glocalization: simultaneously being intensely global
and intensely local. Wellman describes how computer-mediated communication is
contributing to this glocalization transition in social habits and
infrastructure. As networked information technology continues to provide us
with new views of ourselves, we hope that these essay will help designers of
information technology better understand the broader impact of the work they
do.
Herring, S. Gender Differences in Computer-Mediated Communication: Bringing Familiar Baggage to the New Frontier. Keynote paper at American Library Association annual convention (Miami, FL, June 27, 1994).
Introduction:
Although research on computer-mediated communication
(CMC) dates back to the early days of the technology in the 1970's, researchers
have only recently begun to take the gender of users into account.[1] This is perhaps not surprising considering
that men have traditionally dominated the technology and have comprised the
majority of users of computer networks since their inception, but the result is
that most of what has been written on CMC incorporates a very one-sided
perspective. However, recent research has been uncovering some eye-opening
differences in the ways men and women interact "online", and it is
these differences that I will address in my talk today.
My basic claim has two parts: first, that women
and men have recognizably different styles in posting to the Internet, contrary
to the claim that CMC neutralizes distinctions of gender; and second, that
women and men have different communicative ethics -- that is, they value
different kinds of online interactions as appropriate and desirable. I
illustrate these differences -- and some of the problems that arise because of
them -- with specific reference to the phenomenon of "flaming".
To sum up, I have argued that women and men
constitute different discourse communities in cyberspace -- different cultures,
if you will -- with differing communicative norms and practices. These cultures
are not however "separate but equal"; rather, the norms and practices
of masculine net culture, codified in netiquette rules, conflict with those of
the female culture in ways that render cyberspace -- or at
least many "neighborhoods" in
cyberspace -- inhospitable to women.
What can be done to address the imbalance? I'll
conclude by mentioning three ways in which I believe women can promote their
concerns and influence the discourse of the net. The first is to support and
participate in women-centered lists. Such lists provide comfortable fora for
women online, and are frequently models of cooperative discourse whose norms
then become available for wider application if subscribers participate in other
lists as well. But separatism has its
disadvantages, among them the risk of ghettoization. Women must not let themselves be driven by
flame throwers away from mainstream, mixed-sex fora, but rather should actively
seek to gain influence
there, individually and collectively, especially
in fora where metadiscourse about the net itself takes place.
The second way to promote women's interests
net-wide is to educate online communities about the rhetorical strategies used
in intimidating others, and call people on their behavior and its consequences
when they use such strategies. This is already happening on some women-centered
lists such as WMST-L and SWIP-L -- aware of the tendency for a single man or
group of men to dominate discussions even on women-centered topics, female
subscribers call attention to the behavior as soon as they realize it is
happening, and interestingly, it is happening less and less often on these
lists. Group awareness is a powerful force for change, and can be raised in mixed-sex
fora as well.
Finally, women need to participate in any way
they can in the process that leads to the encoding of netiquette rules.
Instigate and participate persuasively in discussions about what constitutes
appropriate and inappropriate behavior online -- seek to define in concrete
terms what constitutes "flaming", for instance, since women and men
will probably have different ideas about this.
Take the initiative and write down guidelines for suggested list
protocol (or modifications to list protocol if guidelines already exist) and
post them for discussion. No greater power exists than the power to define
values, and the structure of the Internet -- especially now, while it is still
evolving and seeking its ultimate definition -- provides a unique opportunity
for individual users to participate in the normative process.
Indeed, it may be vital that we do so if women's
behavior is to be accorded value, and if we are to insure women the right to
settle on the virtual frontier on their own -- rather than on male-defined --
terms.
Herring, Susan. (1996). Linguistic and Critical Analysis of Computer-Mediated Communication: Some Ethical and Scholarly Considerations. The Information Society, Vol. 12, No. 2, p.153-168.
Two proposals (Cavazos 1994) and King (1996)
relating to whether and how computer-mediated communication (CMC) researchers
should cite electronic messages used as data are compared. Although the
proposals prescribe opposite solutions, both contain similar assumptions about
the nature of CMC and about the nature of research. These assumptions are
argued to reflect discipline-specific biases that exclude other legitimate
forms of CMC research. Two examples are discussed of research paradigms that
are excluded by the guidelines: linguistic analysis in the positivist
tradition, and critical analysis in the social realist tradition. The critical
paradigm in particular raises a number of additional ethical considerations not
addressed by the proposed guidelines. It is suggested that existing ethical
guidelines within each discipline largely suffice to guide on-line research,
with the addition of a CMC-specific recommendation clarifying the rights and
obligations of researcher and researched in restricted-access as compared with
open-access on-line groups.
Herring,
Susan. (April 1, 1999). The Value of Interdisciplinarity: A Study Based on the
Design of Internet Search Engines. Journal of the American Society for
Information Science, Vol. 50, No. 4, p. 358.
Abstract
Continued development of the Internet requires the development of efficient, easy-to-use search engines. Ideally, such development should call upon knowledge and skills from a variety of disciplines, including computer science, information science, psychology, and ergonomics. The current study is intended to determine whether search engine design shows a pattern of inter-disciplinarity. Two disciplines were selected as the focus for the study: computer science, and library/information science. A citation analysis was conducted. The results show a higher level of interdisciplinarity among library and i